Under the NZTCS the black swan is defined as a "Non-resident native vagrant"

In New Zealand conservation, the terms used to classify the black swan (Cygnus atratus) can seem conflicting, but they follow specific ecological rules defined by the New Zealand Threat Classification System (NZTCS). 

Here is exactly what that string of terms means and why the black swan fits them:

 

Breaking Down the Classification -

Non-Resident: Under the NZTCS guidelines, a non-resident native is a species that occurs naturally in New Zealand but does not rely on it as its primary, permanent breeding home for its core global survival. 

Native: An organism is native (indigenous) if it arrived and established itself in New Zealand without human assistance. Even though Europeans deliberately released about 100 black swans in the 1860s, the population exploded far quicker than those few birds could account for. Biologists determined that wild black swans from Australia simultaneously flew across the Tasman Sea and self-introduced. Because they arrived under their own steam, they are legally and ecologically classified as native. 

Vagrant: A vagrant is a specific sub-category of a non-resident native. It refers to a species that is highly mobile and sporadically flies into New Zealand from another country (usually Australia). Because black swans are highly nomadic and fly vast distances across the ocean when forced by droughts or seasonal changes, New Zealand continuously receives these wild "vagrant" travelers. 

 

The Confusion: Why are there 50,000 of them if they are "Vagrants"?

The confusion usually comes from the fact that New Zealand has a massive, permanent population of around 50,000 to 60,000 black swans that live and breed here full-time. 

The NZTCS classification accounts for both the resident birds and the continuous influx of new arrivals. Because their presence in New Zealand relies on a mix of historical human introduction, full-time residency, and a steady stream of natural vagrant arrivals flying over from Australia, they bridge multiple technical categories.

As a whole taxon, they are a native species whose wider global population treats New Zealand as a destination for natural, nomadic vagrancy.

Te Papa -

The modern New Zealand bird fauna is comprised of about 206 breeding species, of which 94 (46%) are endemic (i.e. found only in New Zealand), another 76 are native, but also occur elsewhere (37%), and 37 (18%) are introduced. A further 26 species are non-breeding migrants, and 133 species have been recorded as vagrants.

Birdlife Data Zone - 

There are currently 228 bird species in New Zealand, further broken down as 57 land birds, 101 water birds, 96 seabirds and 116 migratory birds. Of these, 94 are classed as endemic.

Te Ara -

New Zealand’s birds can be categorised as endemic, native or introduced.

Endemic Birds

Most of* New Zealand’s native birds are endemic – they are found nowhere else. They evolved into new species in New Zealand. There are endemic species, genera, families and orders – the latter evolved in isolation for so long that they are only distantly related to groups on other land masses.

Endemics include a number of forest birds such as kiwi, saddlebacks and riflemen, shorebirds such as the wrybill, native parrots, various Chatham Island species and subspecies, and many seabirds.

[* 46% of New Zealand’s native birds are endemic.]

Native birds

Native birds are those that naturally occur in New Zealand. In addition to endemics, they include species that also exist in other countries. Native birds that are also found elsewhere, in the same or a closely related form, include the white heron, cattle egret, kingfisher, pūkeko, harrier, morepork, silvereye, two gulls and some ducks.

Self-introduced birds

The native pūkeko is an example of a species that probably came to New Zealand about 1,000 years ago. It is found worldwide, and is known elsewhere as the purple gallinule. It evolved from the same ancestral species that evolved in New Zealand as the takahē.

Among the birds that have reached New Zealand from other countries during the 20th century are the white-faced heron, welcome swallow and spur-winged plover. Once they establish breeding populations, these self-introduced birds are considered natives.

Introduced birds

Thirty-nine deliberately introduced species have formed self-sustaining wild populations. They are not considered native. Most come from Europe, and others from Asia, Australia and North America. They were brought in for sentimental reasons (sparrows, blackbirds and thrushes), or for sport (quail, pheasants and Canada geese), or to control insect pests (magpies, mynas).

University of Waikato Science learning Hub

Endemic

Birds that have evolved and occur and breed naturally only in New Zealand.

• korimako/bellbird (Anthornis melanura)

• hihi (Notiomystis cincta)

• kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus)

• kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae)

• kiwi (Apteryx spp.)

• takahē (Porphyrio mantelli)

• tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae)

• whio (Hymenolanimus malacorhynchos)

Native

Birds that have arrived in New Zealand by themselves and established themselves here. They are also found in other countries.

• kororā/blue penguin (Eudyptula minor)

• pīwakawaka/ fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa)

• kōtare/kingfisher (Halcyon sancta)

• ruru/morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae)

• poaka/pied stilt (Himantopus himantopus)

• pūkeko (Porphyrio porphyrio)

• tauhou/silvereye (Zosterops lateralis)

• black-backed gulls/karoro (Larus dominicanus)

Introduced

Birds that humans have brought to New Zealand.

• blackbird Turdus merula)

• house sparrow (Passer domesticus)

• mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)

• peacock (Pavo cristatus)

• pheasant (hasianus colchicus)

• starling (Sturnus vulgaris)

 

NZ Birds Online

Black swan/Kakīānau

Cygnus atratus (Latham, 1790)

Order: Anseriformes

Family: Anatidae

New Zealand status: Native

Black swans were deliberately introduced, initially from Melbourne, in the 1860s. Their distribution and abundance within a few years of those small introductions suggests that, coincidentally, natural colonisation likely occurred. Periodic immigration from Australia may still occur but has yet to be confirmed.

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed here, but was apparently hunted to extinction. The black swan was introduced as a game bird from Australia to New Zealand in the 1860s but also probably reached here naturally at about the same time as the population grew and spread very rapidly. They are probably still arriving here from Australia naturally so should be classified as a native bird. The Heather and Robertson field guide says that “by the 1960s, there were well over 100,000 birds in New Zealand with 70,000 on Lake Ellesmere alone. However, the 1968 Wahine storm destroyed most of the feeding habitat at Lake Ellesmere and the population there crashed to 10,000 birds, never to quite recover.” The Fish and Game council offers another view of its sudden decline, saying that from the 1970s on farm silt run-off killed the water plants that swan depend on. Starving birds began to eat grass, leading to culls in which many thousands of the birds were killed until their numbers adapted to their impoverished circumstances.

 

 

Guardians of Pāuatahanui Inlet

The black swan is considered a native New Zealand species. It was thought to be present here at the time of first human settlement, becoming extinct prior to European contact, possibly due to predation by Polynesian colonisers. The 1860s saw a deliberate re-introduction of 100 birds from Australia and by the late 1800s there were once again considerable numbers throughout the country. The rapid spread and increase in swan numbers was far greater than expected and suggests that natural re-colonisation may have occurred, something that may still be happening today. There are now estimated to be at least 60,000 black swan in New Zealand but this is below a peak population of 100,000 in the 1960s. This reduction has been put down to the Wahine storm of 1968 which had disastrous effect on the vegetation of Lake Ellesmere. It caused a population of 70,000 swan that lived there to crash to just 10,000 by 1978. Another possible cause for population decline was farm silt run-off that began in the 1970s, killing off the water plants that the swans depend upon. Starving birds began to eat grass, leading to culls in which many thousands were killed. 

 

Te Papa -

Back in 1890, the Canterbury Museum’s Director, Henry Ogg Forbes, described a prehistoric New Zealand swan (Cygnus sumnerensis) based on fossil bones, but by 1998 this was considered to be the same species as the living black swan found in New Zealand and Australia today.

However our new study, led by Otago University researchers, on ancient swan DNA from museum bones has now shown that Forbes was correct. New Zealand did have a prehistorically extinct swan and the Chatham Islands had another closely related form, also extinct. Their extinction occurred about AD 1450, quite soon after humans arrived in the late 13th century and was evidently due to over-hunting.

Today’s black swans arrived in New Zealand through human introduction and probably also under their own steam from Australia at a similar time in the mid-1800s.

The extinct swans were considerably larger than black swans, with relatively shorter wings and longer legs.

 

National Aquarium of New Zealand

Did you know that in the 1860's, about 100 black swans were transported from Australia to New Zealand? The population grew faster than anyone expected, indicating the possibility of additional swans arriving independently.  Looks like New Zealand became THE place to be for black swans! There are 10 primary population groups of black swans in New Zealand, with an estimated population of approximately 60,000.

 

Te Ara -

About 100 black swans were brought to the South Island from Australia in the 1860s, and the species has traditionally been regarded as introduced. However, numbers increased faster than expected, suggesting more birds arrived independently – in which case it should be considered a self-introduced native.

To add to the intrigue, the extinct native swan, previously named Cygnus sumnerensis, is now thought to have been the same species as the black swan.

 

The Wildlife Act 1953 is the main law that helps protect animals classed as wildlife, including some of New Zealand’s most endangered species. The Act does this by controlling how people interact with wildlife

The Wildlife Act covers all native birds, bats, frogs, and reptiles, including those that visit New Zealand such as godwits and sea turtles. It also covers some native invertebrates and marine species.

In total, it currently covers over 930 native species, including 394 bird species. It also covers most introduced birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians that are living in the wild in New Zealand. This currently totals 71 species.

The Act has a tiered system with different levels of protection depending on the species.

1. Absolutely protected wildlife.
2. Wildlife with varying protection. 
3. Unprotected wildlife.

Absolutely protected wildlife

Today, the Wildlife Act absolutely protects almost all native species that are classified as wildlife.

If an animal is ‘absolutely protected’ it means that without a permit from DOC it’s an offence to:

• catch, hunt or kill it
• buy, sell or possess it
• hold it in captivity
• release it
• export it.

The protection applies whether the animal is alive or dead, and to all or parts of it, for example, feathers, skin, bones, eggs.

The protection also applies at all times, on any land throughout New Zealand, and out to the limit of New Zealand’s exclusive economic zone. However, killing, or injuring seabirds and other absolutely protected marine wildlife during fishing is not an offence provided it is reported.

For absolutely protected wildlife, any permits that are issued must be consistent with their protection in the wild. DOC provides permits in response to requests from tangata whenua to use dead wildlife for cultural purposes, for example, feathers for korowai.

DOC also may give permits in response to applications from groups wanting to:

• manage and monitor wildlife in recovery programmes
• carry out research
• breed and release wildlife
• rehabilitate sick and injured wildlife
• have wildlife on display, or hold dead specimens for research, educational or advocacy purposes
• relocate wildlife that would be affected by development projects, for example, bats and lizards.

 

Examples of absolutely protected wildlife

Kiwi, kea, blue duck/whio, tūī, fantail/pīwakawaka, terns, albatross/toroa, tuatara, jewelled gecko/moko kākāriki, Hochstetter’s frog/peketua, short-tailed bat/pekapeka, giant wētā/wētā punga, flax snails/pūpū harakeke, spotted black grouper, manta ray, basking sharks/mangō, sea turtles/honu, fan corals/pungatea.

2. Wildlife with varying protection

Some wildlife species are protected but not absolutely. They may be killed in specific circumstances. These species are listed in schedules within the Act.

Schedule 1

Birds listed in Schedule 1 are game birds. Game birds may be hunted, but only during the open season by people holding a licence. Fish and Game Councils issue the licences and manage the hunting through an annual notice which sets out such things as the timing of the open season, bag limits, and how the birds may be killed. 

 

Game birds included in Schedule 1

Five native species: shoveler/kuruwhengi, grey duck/pārera, pūkeko, paradise shelduck/pūtangitangi, and black swan.

Eight introduced species: mallard, pheasant, chukar, grey partridge, red-legged partridge, bobtail quail, brown quail, and California quail.

 

Schedule 2

Three species are listed in Schedule 2: brown skua/hākoakoa (on Chatham islands only), little owl, and silvereye/tauhou. These species are protected. However, if they are causing damage to land or property, they may be controlled in that place by the landowner.

Schedule 3

Wildlife listed in Schedule 3 are protected but may be held, hunted, or killed if allowed by a notice and only as prescribed by that notice. There are currently seven Schedule 3 notices. For example, notices enable Rakiura Māori to harvest tītī on the Tītī/Muttonbird Islands, and for harriers/kāhu and some shags to be killed in specific circumstances.

On the Chatham Islands, where there is no Fish and Game Council, the birds that can be hunted as game are instead listed in Schedule 3 and DOC manages the hunting through a notice.

 

Species listed in Schedule 3

Species with recreational hunting managed on the Chatham Islands: grey duck/pārera, pūkeko, black swan, South Island weka, mallard.

Other native species: grey-faced petrel, sooty shearwater/tītī, harrier/kāhu, black shag/kawau, pied shag/kāruhiruhi, little shag/kawaupaka, Stewart Is weka, grey teal/tētē moroiti.

Other introduced species: pheasant, chukar, grey partridge, red-legged partridge, bobtail quail, brown quail, California quail.

 

3. Unprotected wildlife

Schedule 5 lists wildlife species that are not protected. These include most introduced wildlife.

Some of these unprotected wildlife species cause harm, for example:

• as predators on threatened native species, for example, stoats, feral cats, hedgehogs
• by browsing native plants, for example, wallabies
• by causing damage to farms or orchards, for example, possums, Canada geese, rooks, or to people’s homes, for example, rats, mice
• by posing risks to people’s safety through bird strike at airports, for example, spur-winged plover, black-backed gulls.

Being unprotected means that the Act does not manage people’s interactions with them (except for ferrets, stoats, and weasels which may not be held, farmed, bred, or sold without a permit). These species can therefore be taken or controlled if and where needed. For example, by landowners and homeowners, by regional councils through regional pest management plans under the Biosecurity Act 1993, and by DOC in reserves and national parks.

 

Unprotected wildlife

Two native species: black-backed gulls/karoro and spur-winged plover.

Sixty introduced species, such as rats, hedgehogs, wallabies, possums, ferrets, stoats, magpies, starlings, Canada geese, rainbow skinks, southern bell frogs.

 

Crown ownership

The Crown owns all wildlife, except unprotected species.

When a person lawfully takes or kills wildlife listed in Schedules 1, 2, or 3, ownership passes to that person. But this does not apply to absolutely protected species, which the Crown continues to own, including their feathers, bones, skin and eggs (for example, specimens in museums).

Wildlife areas

The Wildlife Act also enables wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife refuges, and wildlife management reserves to be established. These can be on public conservation land, other Crown land, private land, or estuaries, with the consent of the relevant Minister or landowner.  There are currently 20 around New Zealand that have been established under the Wildlife Act. They are located on islands, lakes, inlets, creeks, lagoons and river mouths.

 

 

Animal cruelty defines a range of different behaviours that are harmful to animals. These behaviours range from neglect to malicious killing. Most cruelty reports are investigated by humane officers who can educate owners about unintentional neglect. Intentional cruelty or abuse is knowingly depriving an animal of food, water, shelter, socialisation and/or veterinary care or maliciously torturing, maiming, mutilating, or killing an animal.

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